Convolution as matrix multiplication (im2col)

One-line definition

im2col rearranges a convolution input so each spatial location’s receptive field becomes a column of a matrix. The convolution then reduces to a single matmul: $\text{Conv}(X,W)=W_{\text{flat}}\cdot \text{im2col}(X)$.

Why it matters

Modern hardware (GPUs, TPUs) is optimized for dense matmul. A naive 2D convolution loop is the wrong shape for that hardware: nested loops over spatial positions, channels, and kernel offsets, with poor memory locality. im2col turns the same arithmetic into a single GEMM call that lands on the highly tuned BLAS path.

Every major framework (cuDNN, MKL-DNN, XNNPACK) implements convolution as some variant of this idea. Understanding it explains why CNN inference cost scales like matmul, why grouped convolutions are cheap, and why depthwise-separable convolutions split into two matmuls.

The mechanism

For input $X\in {\mathbb{R}}^{C_{in}\times H\times W}$, kernel $W\in {\mathbb{R}}^{C_{out}\times C_{in}\times k\times k}$, output $Y\in {\mathbb{R}}^{C_{out}\times H_{out}\times W_{out}}$:

1. im2col: for each output position $(i,j)$, extract the $C_{in}\cdot k\cdot k$ values in its receptive field and stack them as a column. The result is a matrix $X_{\text{col}}\in {\mathbb{R}}^{(C_{in}{k}^2)\times (H_{out}{W}_{out})}$.
2. Flatten kernel: reshape $W$ to $W_{\text{flat}}\in {\mathbb{R}}^{C_{out}\times (C_{in}{k}^2)}$.
3. GEMM: $Y_{\text{flat}}=W_{\text{flat}}\cdot X_{\text{col}}$, shape $C_{out}\times (H_{out}{W}_{out})$.
4. col2im: reshape $Y_{\text{flat}}$ back to $C_{out}\times H_{out}\times W_{out}$.

Memory cost: $X_{\text{col}}$ duplicates each input pixel up to $k^2$ times. For a $3\times 3$ kernel, that is a 9x blowup of the activation tensor.

Variants

• Implicit GEMM: avoid materializing $X_{\text{col}}$ in memory. Compute the matmul tile by tile, indexing back into $X$ on the fly. cuDNN’s default for most conv shapes.
• Winograd: trade matmul FLOPs for additions via polynomial transforms. Faster for small kernels (e.g. $3\times 3$) on certain hardware. Lower numerical precision.
• FFT convolution: ${\mathcal{F}}^{-1}(\mathcal{F}(X)\odot \mathcal{F}(W))$. Wins for large kernels (rare in modern CNNs).
• Depthwise convolution: each input channel has its own filter, so $W$ is block-diagonal. The matmul splits into $C_{in}$ tiny independent matmuls, much cheaper.

Why this matters for the senior interview

If asked “how does convolution actually run on a GPU,” the expected answer is: it is a matmul. Then walk through the im2col reshape, the GEMM call, and the memory blowup. Bonus points for noting that the flattened kernel $W_{\text{flat}}$ has shape $C_{out}\times C_{in}{k}^2$, so the FLOP count is $C_{out}\cdot C_{in}\cdot k^2\cdot H_{out}\cdot W_{out}$. The same formula you see in every model card.

Common pitfalls

• Forgetting the memory cost. im2col can be larger than the activation it came from. Implicit GEMM exists for this reason.
• Conflating convolution with cross-correlation. Deep learning frameworks implement cross-correlation; the kernel is not flipped. Mathematicians’ convolution flips the kernel. Almost never matters in practice.
• Treating depthwise and pointwise as a single op. They are two distinct matmuls with very different shapes. Profile separately.

Related

• CNN architecture.
• FlashAttention. Same idea: rearrange for hardware.